Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance

Q: What is cross-fertilization?
A: This is a process of taking two plants with different traits and crossing the pollen of the two plants with one another.
Q: What is Mendel's law of segregation?
A: When sperm and egg unite at fertilization, each contributes its allele, restoring the paired condition in the offspring.
Q: What do homologous chromosomes do?
A: Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each characteristic of the new organism.

Five Main Facts:
1)Genetics use the testcross to determine unknown genotypes.
2) The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once.
3) Mendel's law reflect the rules of probability.
4) Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through family pedigrees.
5) Many genes have more than two alleles in the population.

This is a Mendel chart. This shows the possible phenotypes of the offspring due to the genotype of the parent plants.

Chapter nine focused on genetics. This includes genotype and phenotypes. Mendel studied genetics thoroughly and formulated many useful concepts of genetics. Human genetics follow Mendel's laws. 

Key Terms:

1) Rule of addition: probability that an event can occur in two or more alternative ways is the sum of the separate probabilities of the different ways

2) Pedigree: family tree

3) Carriers: possession of the recessive allele for the disorder but are phenotypically normal

4) Inbreeding: mating of close relatives

5) Amniocentesis: procedure performed between weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy for fetal testing

6) Complete dominance: dominant allele had the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies

7) Pleiotrophy: influence of multiple characters

8) Polygenic inheritance: additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character

9) Sex-linked gene: a gene located on either sex chromosome 

10) Hemophilia: a sex-linked gene recessive trait that results in excessive bleeding

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X9Qrm6o4tNQ

Chapter 8 - The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance

Q: Where do cells come from?
A: Cells are made from preexisting cells through the process of cell division.
Q: How do prokaryotic cells reproduce?
A: Prokaryotic cells reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission.
Q: What are the three cellular cycles called?
A: G1, S, and G2 and mitosis are the four stages of a cell.

Five Main Facts:
1) All cells come from preexisting cells.
2) Interphase is where the majority of a cells life is spent.
3) Sister chromatids contain identical copies of DNA.
4) Mitosis consists of prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
5) Anchorage, cell density and chemical growth factors affect the division of a cell.

This diagram shows metaphase. As you can see, the chromosomes are lining up on the metaphase plate so they will be able to be separated by the spindle fibers from the centrosome. 

Cell division is the basis for the reproduction of cells. Chromosomes are duplicated in order to make identical daughter cells. Cells are split into daughter cells through the process called mitosis. Meiosis is the production of sex cells. Four haploid cells are made from this process.

Key Terms:

1) Chromatin: combination of DNA and protein molecules

2) Centromere: two chromatids are joined together tightly at a narrow "waist"

3) Cell cycle: ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell

4) Centrosomes: clouds of cytoplasmic material that in animal cell contain centrioles

5) Cleavage furrow: shallow groove in the cell surface

6) Cell plate: vesicles fuse to form a membranous plate

7) Growth factor: protein secreted by certain body cells that stimulate other cells to divide

8) Anchorage dependence: most animal cells must be in contact with a solid surface

9) Tumor: abnormally growing mass of body cells
10) Diploid cell: any cell with two homologous sets of chromosomes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kpR5RSJ7SA

Chapter 7 - Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food

Q: What is photosynthesis?
A: Photosynthesis is a process that converts light energy into glucose for energy the cell can use.
Q: What are the reactants of photosynthesis?
A: There are two reactants of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and light energy.
Q: What are the two stages of photosynthesis and how are they connected?
A: Light reactions and the Calvin Cycle are the two stages of photosynthesis and they are linked by ATP and NADPH.

Five Main Facts:
1) 6CO2 + 6H2O+ Light energy ---> C6H12O6+ 6O2
2) Photosystems are certain wavelengths of visible light, absorbed by pigments such as chlorophyll and carotenoids.
3) There are two stages of photosynthesis, light reactions and the Calvin Cycle.
4) ATP and NADPH power sugar synthesis in the Calvin Cycle.
5) Chemiosmosis powers ATP synthesis in the light reactions.

This is a diagram of an electron transport chain with provides energy for synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis.

Photosynthesis uses light energy to create ATP. There are two stages of photosynthesis, light reactions and the Calvin Cycle. Photosystems make it able for light to be absorbed by pigments. This starts the chemical reaction. The Calvin Cycle converts CO2 into sugars. 

Key Terms:

1) Photosynthesis: chemical reaction in which light is converted into ATP

2) Autotrophs: plants are considered this because they are able to make their own food and sustain themselves

3) Producers: plants that make their own organic molecules and are the ultimate source of organic molecules for almost all other organisms

4) Chlorophyll: light absorbing pigment in the chloroplasts that plays a central role in converting solar energy to chemical energy

5) Mesophyll: green tissue in the interior of the leaf

6) Stomata: tiny pores in the leaf
7) Stroma: thick fluid that fills chloroplasts
8) Thylakoids: system of interconnected membranous sacs
9) Grana: concentrated stacks of thylakoids
10) Carbon fixation: incorporation  of carbon from CO2 into organic compounds

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hj_WKgnL6MI

Chapter 6 - How Cells Harvest Energy

Q: What is used in cells in order to harvest energy?
A: A cell uses sugar and air in order to convert it into a viable energy source for the cell.
Q: How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration different?
A: Photosynthesis uses light energy to convert into chemical energy whereas cellular respiration uses air and other reactants in order to create chemical energy.
Q: How many stages are there in cellular respiration?
A: There are three main stages in cellular respiration, glycolysis, citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.

Five Main Facts:
1) Glycolysis begins respiration by breaking glucose into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called pyruvate.
2) Cells create ATP in order to have energy for the cell to use.
3) When we breathe we are supplying all of our cells with oxygen in order to use for cellular respiration.
4) A concentration gradient is needed for cellular respiration to take place.
5) Fermentation allows for cells to produce ATP without oxygen.

This diagram shows the reactants, products and cycles that a cell goes through during cellular respiration.

Chapter six goes through how cells are able to produce energy to use for cellular function. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are two ways energy is used. ATP is what these processes create. ATP is the main source of energy for a cell. In order for this process to take place, there must be a concentration gradient of hydrogen otherwise ATP synthase will not be able to take place. 

Key Terms:

1) Cellular respiration: the aerobic harvesting of energy from sugar by muscle cells

2) Redox reaction: movement of electrons from one molecule to another is an oxidation-reduction reaction

3) Oxidation: loss of electrons from one substance

4) Reduction: addition of electrons to another substance
5) Electron transport chain: NADH delivering electrons to the rest of the staircase.
6) Glycolysis: occurs in the cytoplasmic fluid of the cell
7) Citric acid cycle: takes place within the mitochondria
8) Oxidative phosphorylation: involves the electron transport chain and a process known as chemiosmosis
9) ATP synthase: protein complexes built into the inner membrane that synthesize ATP
10) Intermediates: final product of glycolysis also known as a pyruvate

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbJ0nbzt5Kw